The Military Construction of State Capacity in the Early Swedish Empire

At the time of the emergence of the Vasa dynasty in 1523, Sweden stood as an unprepossessing backwater surrounded by powerful enemies. But within seventy years, Sweden became one of the great powers of Europe and a major party to the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, whose military strength was respected by the dominant powers of Europe. Yet seventy years after this, the Swedish star had largely set, with nearly all the Swedish Empire’s colonial possessions having been lost and its armies broken. The swift Swedish rise to power and subsequent fall seems nearly miraculous: how could so weak and small a state achieve so much in such a short time? The answer lies in the gradual construction of an administrative state on the part of the Vasa dynasty. Culminating in the campaigns and reforms of Adolphus, the Vasa dynasty pursued a measured course of deliberate promotion and control of foreign trade; the use of the Lutheran Church as a source of funds, a teaching institution, and a tool of social control to sustain a constant series of wars; and an aggressive foreign policy aimed at ensuring the security of the Swedish state.

Sweden at the start of Gustav Vasa’s reign (r. 1523-1560) was a large, sparsely populated country with little in the way of industry. (Frost 2015, 7) Having just emerged as a state from a rebellion against the Kingdom of Denmark and being massively indebted to the Hanseatic city of Lubeck, the prospects for the fledgling kingdom were poor. However, the turmoil in northern Europe during the reign of Gustav’s reign provided an opportunity for expansion. The Hanseatic League, formerly the most important economic entity in the Baltic Sea, was weakening and coming under pressure from the Dutch and English. (3) Additionally, after Gustav’s death, a power vacuum emerged with the downfall of the Teutonic Order in 1561 and turmoil in Muscovy beginning in 1598. (3) Sweden did have many potential boons for a wise ruler to tap: it was in an ideal position to strike at the major trading towns of the Baltic coasts, it possessed abundant mineral resources, and it happened to be useful to any number of major European powers seeking to gain an advantage over their enemies, due to its aforementioned proximity to major Baltic trade routes and its ties to the Lutheran German states. (Roberts 1965a, 8-9)

It is difficult to untangle and discuss separately the factors which propelled Sweden to its brief period of greatness. Any discussion of economics is inextricably linked to the role played by the Swedish army, as the development of the administrative state was crucial to the maintenance of the army, which in turn allowed the Vasa dynasty and its ministers opportunities to consolidate their position and further develop their administration.

Trade was the lifeblood of the Swedish Empire. The Baltic Sea trade had long been a massive source of revenue to whomever controlled it since the early days of the Hanseatic League in the early 14th century. The Vasa dynasty itself came to power thanks to ships and money from the city of Lubeck, the founder of the Hanseatic League. However, Lubeck’s support came at a cost: the city demanded military support against Denmark, repayment of its loans, and a near-monopoly on Swedish trade. Through clever diplomacy and the new Swedish navy, Sweden managed to break free of these conditions and began to diversify its trading partners. This was coupled with developments abroad: the attempts of Muscovy to bring the easternmost Baltic ports under its control and away from that of the Hanseatic League led to the focus of the trade shifting from Novgorod to Livonia, most notably in towns like Riga and Narva. (Roberts 1965, 7) Coupled with the collapse of the Teutonic Order in 1561, Sweden found itself in an excellent position to extend its dominion over Livonia, beginning with an invitation from the city of Reval that same year to intervene on its behalf against Poland-Lithuania and Russia. (8)

Livonia was not the only region in which the Vasa dynasty was interested. Control over the Baltic trade was important, but without North Sea access free of the tolls imposed by the Danes, it was not nearly as profitable as it otherwise may have been. In addition to being a major thoroughfare for trade, the North Sea presented easy access to the rest of Europe and the developing trends in economics, military strategy, and governance. The Swedish gateway to western Europe and these innovations was the port fortress of Alvsborg, which became an important military target for Denmark and was the source of much contention during the reign of Gustavus Adolphus.

The interest of the Vasa dynasty in trade did not simply extend to acquiring new territories and ports. Despite being something of a backwater, Stockholm conducted trade across Europe, and the Vasa dynasty was intent on exploiting this. (Tikka et al., 2020, 8) Gustavus Adolphus (r. 1611-1632) made the greatest efforts at regulating trade when he applied royal monopolies with varying degrees of success to vital goods such as salt and grain. (Roberts 1965b, 86-87) All of the other Vasa kings also made attempts to regulate the conduct of merchants and their integration into the state apparatus. (Tikka & Lamberg, 2020, 28-29) Karl IX (r. 1604-1611) and Gustavus Adolphus both spent a great deal of time and effort trying to attract Dutch merchants and artisans to Sweden, with the twin goals of increasing the volume of trade in Swedish ports and in developing the manufacturing capacity of the nation. The Netherlands was the target of these efforts due to its proximity, shared religion, and strong economic position and development. The Dutch and other powers began to make overtures to Sweden for trading purposes primarily in the beginning of Adolphus’s reign. It must be noted that Danish aggression, and fears of their dominance over Baltic trade, caused the other Protestant powers of Europe, namely the Netherlands, England, Scotland, and the Hanseatic cities, to view Sweden as a counterbalance. (Riches 2013, 50)

Imported Dutch innovation was most evident in the development of commercial companies in Sweden and the Swedish mining industry. Sweden had abundant and high-quality supplies of iron and copper. This advantage was compounded by the rarity and political vulnerability of other sources of European copper, as well as the recent adoption of copper coinage by the Spanish. (Roberts 1965b, 33) Swedish steel was of an exceedingly high quality and was desired across Europe. Lubeck formed the largest initial market for these mineral exports, but after its military defeat at the hands of Sweden and Denmark, the Vasa dynasty turned its attention to Dutch merchants and innovations. (Roberts 1986, 34) Stimulation of steel manufacture began under Gustav Vasa, and was further developed by his son Karl IX, who invited German workers to come to Sweden to build new types of forges and introduce new techniques for working steel, with the goal of enhancing the native arms industry and ensuring easy access to military equipment. (183) Adolphus continued these investments, encouraging prospectors to search for ore and financially supporting the transfer of forges from small to large investors in order to stimulate production. (Roberts 1965b, 105-107)

The other vital mineral, copper, outside of its use in making cannons, was more useful in an immediate economic sense. Revenues from the sale of copper formed the backbone of the Swedish economy by 1625. (Roberts 1965b, 89) Despite the increasing role of copper, the Swedish economy until the time of Adolphus was almost exclusively conducted in in-kind exchanges, with the treasury in 1573 receiving only six percent of its total revenue in cash. (44) Adolphus was forced to change the economy to one relying on coin by circumstance, as he needed hard currency to pay his troops, and by personal desire, viewing it as beneath the dignity of a monarch to receive payment in goods. (75) However, overproduction flooded the market, causing the currency to be massively devalued and further straining an already taut Swedish budget. Despite these failures to successfully capitalize on Sweden’s resources, a clear pattern of conscious development can be seen. The Vasa kings understood the economic importance of minerals to their regime, and actively stimulated the development of a nascent manufacturing industry within their kingdom.

Outside of direct trade revenue, foreign powers were also models for Swedish innovations, both economic and military. The Netherlands was the most important, as they were one of the most economically and technologically advanced states in Europe and importing Dutch ideas was easy due to the constant stream of merchants. The greatest proponent of economic development along Dutch lines was Adolphus’s loyal chancellor Axel Oxenstierna, who studied Dutch authors for the best economic and trade policies to pursue, in addition to encouraging the development of various trading companies. (Thomson 2005, 343) A more successful measure was the introduction of new Dutch methods of book-keeping and accounting to national finances, which streamlined matters considerably for the small civil service, and aided administration of the army.

Fundamentally, none of the various supports and reforms of the state would have been possible without the aggressive military policy pursued by the Vasa dynasty. Surrounded by the three great foes of Denmark, Poland-Lithuania, and Russia/Muscovy, the Vasa state was forced to militarize heavily just to survive. A prime motivation for these hostilities was the lack of legitimacy of the Vasa dynasty itself. Gustav Vasa had taken the throne after rebelling against Denmark, and his son Karl only came to power thanks to a rebellion against his nephew Sigismund, the king of Poland-Lithuania. Naturally, both Denmark and Poland-Lithuania wished to either restore their hold over Sweden or secure it. The constant threat of invasion forced Sweden to constantly search for allies abroad. Despite their mutual hatreds, Sweden found itself in a constantly shifting set of alliances and truces with Denmark, Poland-Lithuania, and Russia depending on geopolitical currents. The search for allies outside the Baltic led to Swedish overtures to England, Scotland, Prussia, France, the Netherlands, and Spain, with varying degrees of success. Frequently, the aggressive actions of the Swedes made them suspect in the eyes of their potential allies, in addition to the stain of usurpation upon them.

Another avenue of Swedish security was colonial expansion. The acquisition of territories in Germany, Livonia, and Finland were necessary both to provide strategic depth against foreign invasion and to ensure the easy flow of the trade which Sweden depended on. Because of the attempts of Ivan III of Muscovy to control his terminus of the Baltic trade around Novgorod, the flow of trade shifted both north through the White Sea, and west towards Livonia. This Russian trade was valuable not only for the raw materials produced in the Baltic, but also for goods from Persia and places further east, such as silk. (Roberts 1986, 154-156) Accordingly, Sweden began to establish settlements increasingly farther north in Finland with the aim of regulating the emerging White Sea trade, while solidifying its control over Karelia and Livonia. Sweden fought numerous wars with Russia over the territories in Karelia and Livonia, while Denmark objected to the annexation of territories in the far north which it claimed. As well, the Vasa dynasty pursued territorial objectives in northern Germany towards the same goal, as well as providing a buffer for Sweden. (Frost 2015, 12) This concern for territory was present from the early days of Gustav Vasa’s rule until the attempts of Axel Oxienstierna at salvaging the wreckage of Swedish losses during the Thirty Years War.

Any discussion of the Swedish military and its role in the state would be remiss without mentioning the famed reforms of Gustavus Adolphus. However, Adolphus was not the first Vasa king to attempt reforms. Gustav Vasa and Erik XIV (r. 1560-1568) undertook several reforms aimed at adapting the Swedish army to fighting in northern conditions, such as increasing the number of pikemen in infantry units and breaking down the large infantry formations common in Europe at the time into something more suited to the rough Swedish terrain. (Frost 2015, 30) These reforms culminated in those of Adolphus, who forged the Swedish army into one of the most effective forces in Europe. Innovations such as the revival of the cavalry charge and the shift towards the use of small, light, mobile artillery changed the face of European warfare. However, it is nonetheless worth pointing out that Adolphus’s reputation is overstated in some respects. Despite the very real importance of developing the first European conscript army, Adolphus still made extensive use of German, Scottish and Irish mercenaries during his campaigns. As well, his success from 1630-1632 in Germany overshadows the stalemate in Poland directly preceding it. Regardless, Adolphus’s actions were enough to give his chancellor Oxenstierna sufficient breathing room as to continue reforming the Swedish state and increase its efficacy.

Aside from Adolphus’s success on the field, an important arm of Swedish power was the development of a navy. A navy was essential for securing trade routes, preventing enemy forces from landing in Sweden, and ensuring ease of movement of troops to and from Germany. The Swedish navy began under Gustav Vasa, who built a force of armed merchantmen for both offensive and defensive purposes. His successors, most notably Erik XIV, embarked on a campaign to rapidly build a navy capable of outsailing and outfighting the Danish fleet, which was the largest in the region. These efforts had some success, with the new Swedish navy fighting the Danes to a virtual standstill during the Nordic Seven Years War. (Frost 2015, 35) The development of the Swedish navy eventually allowed Adolphus to cross the sea and maintain offensive operations in Germany for several years. These expensive efforts at military expansion indicate the hold that naval matters had on the quest for Swedish security and economic development.

Sweden on the coronation of Gustav Vasa stood alone among the nations of Europe. It was without allies, sparsely populated, exceedingly rural and surrounded by enemies. Thanks to policies of economic development, the assistance of the Church and a series of groundbreaking military reforms, the Swedish state was able to make its dramatic rise in power. A positive feedback loop emerged: the reforms made possible further conquest, which required further reforms. However, the tools that allowed Sweden to become a major player in European affairs proved to be its downfall: overreliance on foreign trade and the need to control it forced Sweden to be in a state of near-perpetual war, the Lutheran Church was a finite resource to be tapped, and the military innovations which gained it such success overextended Swedish power and capacity, exposing it to greater danger. The successes engendered by governmental reforms eventually caused the Swedish empire to overreach and create untenable positions for future rulers, causing its defeat before the full effects of many policies could bear fruit.

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